Fermented heritage: 10 time-honoured traditional Asian brews and spirits
Long before cocktails acquired garnish theatrics and brand mythology, people throughout Asia were already fermenting and distilling with precision. From huangjiu and baijiu in China to makgeolli and traditional soju in South Korea, from sake and shochu in Japan to tapuy in the Philippines, awamori in Okinawa, arrack in Sri Lanka and Indonesia, and chhaang across the Himalayas, these ancestral brews and spirits evolved as agricultural responses to climate, ritual and preservation. Rice, millet, sorghum, palm sap and mould starters such as jiuqu, nuruk and koji were transformed into alcohol through fermentation systems refined over centuries.
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These traditional Asian alcoholic drinks are not variations of Western wine or beer, but distinct, localised technologies of survival and ceremony. To drink them today is to taste fermentation history—and the continuity of indigenous craft across Asia.
Huangjiu / yellow wine (China)
China’s huangjiu, or yellow wine, is one of the world’s oldest fermented rice and millet wines, dating back over 2,000 years
Huangjiu is one of the world’s oldest continuously produced alcoholic beverages, with written records dating back more than two millennia. It is made from water, cereal grains such as rice or millet, and jiuqu, a fermentation starter containing moulds, yeasts, and bacteria that convert starches into sugars and alcohol simultaneously. Alcohol levels typically range from 14 to 20 per cent, placing it structurally closer to fortified wine than beer. Unlike grape wine, huangjiu is often aged in sealed clay or earthenware jars, which allows slow oxidation without oak influence. Traditionally served gently warmed, the heat volatilises aromatics—nutty, caramelised and faintly savoury compounds—that remain muted when cold.
Makgeolli (South Korea)
Makgeolli is a traditional Korean unfiltered rice wine made with nuruk fermentation starter, known for its cloudy texture and natural carbonation
One of the most beloved brews and spirits in Korea, makgeolli is an unfiltered rice wine with a cloudy appearance caused by suspended rice solids and live fermentation cultures. Its production relies on nuruk, a wild fermentation starter that introduces lactic acid bacteria alongside yeast, resulting in natural carbonation and mild acidity.
Alcohol content usually sits between 6 and 8 per cent, though traditional farmhouse versions can climb higher. Historically consumed by farmers during and after fieldwork, it provided calories, hydration and probiotics in one vessel. The flavour profile is lightly sweet, tangy and cereal-forward, with a texture closer to thin yoghurt than wine.
Sake / nihonshu (Japan)
Produced through parallel fermentation rather than fruit sugars, sake is a brewed alcohol whose clarity masks one of the most technically complex processes in the beverage world (Photo: Xtra, Inc. / Unsplash)
Sake’s production process resembles beer more than wine, as it begins with polished rice rather than fruit sugars. Koji mould (Aspergillus oryzae) converts rice starch into fermentable sugars while yeast simultaneously produces alcohol, a process known as multiple parallel fermentation. Archaeological and textual evidence traces ritual rice alcohol to at least the 3rd century, with fully modern brewing techniques emerging by the medieval period. Alcohol content typically ranges from 15 to 17 per cent, though dilution before bottling is common. Temperature service—cold, room, or warm—is dictated less by tradition than by the sake’s acidity, amino acid content and aromatic volatility.
Tapuy (Philippines)
Tapuy is an indigenous Filipino rice wine from the Cordillera highlands, central to ritual feasts and ancestral ceremonies
Tapuy is an indigenous rice wine produced by highland communities in the Cordillera region, with roots that predate Spanish colonisation. It is fermented using powdered rice cakes inoculated with wild yeasts and moulds, a process closely related to other Austronesian rice wines. Unlike many unfiltered rice wines, finished tapuy is clear and relatively high in alcohol, often exceeding 14 per cent. It plays a central role in cañao rituals, weddings and peace pacts, where its clarity symbolises purity and completion. Structurally, it drinks dry and full-bodied, with restrained sweetness and a clean cereal finish.
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Baijiu (China)
Baijiu is China’s high-proof distilled sorghum spirit, made using solid-state fermentation with qu starter and aged in ceramic vessels (Photo: Badagnani / Wikimedia Commons)
Baijiu is the most consumed distilled spirit in the world, though it remains structurally unfamiliar to many Western drinkers. It is produced from sorghum or other grains fermented with qu, a brick-shaped starter rich in mould and bacteria, then distilled and aged in ceramic vessels rather than wood. Alcohol levels range from 40 to over 60 per cent, depending on style and producer. The spirit is categorised by aroma rather than raw material, with major families including sauce, strong and light aroma, each defined by specific ester profiles. Its intensity is not accidental but the result of solid-state fermentation and long microbial contact.
Traditional soju (South Korea)
Traditional Korean soju is a single-distilled rice spirit introduced during the Mongol era, distinct from modern diluted green-bottle versions, retaining a firmer, more aromatic structure
Soju entered Korea through Mongol contact in the 13th century, introducing distillation techniques previously unknown on the peninsula. Early versions were made from rice and distilled once, producing a clean but assertive spirit often used medicinally. Traditional soju typically ranges from 20 to 45 per cent alcohol by volume, depending on distillation strength. Modern green-bottle soju, diluted with neutral alcohol, emerged during 20th-century grain shortages and should be understood as a separate category. Heritage producers today are reviving single-distillation methods using rice and nuruk, restoring depth and texture.
Shochu (Japan)
Shochu is a Japanese single-distilled spirit from Kyushu, made from sweet potato, barley or rice and valued for its raw ingredient character
One of the most famous brews and spirits in Asia, shochu developed in southern Japan during the 16th century, influenced by trade routes connecting Kyushu, China and the Ryukyu Kingdom. It is distilled once, preserving raw material character rather than stripping it away. Base ingredients include sweet potato, barley or rice, each yielding distinct aromatic profiles. Alcohol content usually ranges from 20 to 25 per cent, making it lower-proof than most spirits but more structured than wine. Unlike sake, shochu does not benefit from ageing, and freshness is a valued trait.
Awamori (Okinawa)
Japan’s oldest distilled spirit, awamori is made with black koji and long-grain rice, producing a spirit designed to mature slowly in ceramic rather than wood. (Photo: 663highland / Wikimedia Commons)
Awamori is Japan’s oldest distilled spirit, with production methods dating back to the 15th century. It is made exclusively from long-grain Indica rice imported historically from Thailand, fermented with black koji mould that thrives in subtropical climates. Distilled once and often aged in clay pots, aged awamori (kusu) can develop nutty, rounded characteristics over decades. Alcohol levels typically exceed 30 per cent, giving it a firm structural backbone. Its continuity reflects Okinawa’s role as a historical trading hub rather than a cultural offshoot of mainland Japan.
Arrack (Sri Lanka / Indonesia)
Arrack is a traditional South and Southeast Asian distilled spirit made from fermented palm sap or rice, and one of the earliest Asian alcohols exported to Europe
Arrack refers to a family of distilled spirits made from fermented palm sap or rice, documented in Asian trade records as early as the 13th century. In Sri Lanka, coconut flower sap is collected, naturally fermented and distilled, producing a spirit around 33–40 per cent alcohol. Southeast Asian versions may incorporate rice mash or herbs, reflecting regional agriculture. Compared to other brews and spirits, arrack predates rum in European markets and influenced early colonial distillation practices. Its profile is dry, faintly grassy and structurally closer to agricole-style spirits than molasses-based ones.
Chhaang (Himalayas)
Chhaang is a low-alcohol fermented grain drink consumed across Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet, adapted to high-altitude Himalayan climates
Chhaang is a fermented grain drink consumed across the Himalayan belt, including Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. Made from barley, millet or rice, it is fermented using wild starters and consumed warm. Alcohol content is relatively low, but repeated infusions over the same grains can intensify strength. It functions as both beverage and sustenance in high-altitude climates. Structurally, it is closer to a thin beer than wine, emphasising warmth and digestibility.
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